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.LB:4 =========================================================================== BOOK 1 ...FUTURE SYSTEMS by Mark T. Nadir... Page $$$ =========================================================================== CHAPTER TWO DISCUSSION OF PREVIOUS ANALOGIES INTRODUCTION 1 In the opening chapter (chapter 1) three analogies were offered. (The third one having two variants.) As was stated in chapter 1, the first analogy was an analogy of a point to point communications code sys tem. The second analogy was an analogy of a Mass-Access code commun ications system. The third analogy was an analogy of the basic prin ciples of Positional Transduction Methodology. The second half of the analogy employed a turntable (or wheel) to illustrate how many sub scribers can simultaneously co-share the the transmission path. This analogy introduces the Reader to the Mass-Access operation of Posit ional Transduction Methodology. 2 Chapter 2 is devoted to examining of the analogies already presented, and drawing some (non-obvious ?) conclusions regarding them. Some of the discussion will center around what these analogies mean in terms of hardware. But, what is more important, what these analogies mean in terms of concepts. These, and a few other items, will comprise the contents of this chapter. 3 In order to speak english, in order to explain clearly, words must be used. But, words offer problems which words alone cannot correct. There is a constant reference, throughout this text, (especially in Book 1) to "systems". The term appears and re-appears with great fre quency. It cannot be evaded except at the expense of either becoming "wordy" or evasive! The word "system" is NOT to taken to mean a phy sical system or something that can be turned into a physical system. The system that is meant is the conceptual system. This must be borne in mind by the reader since repeating it is boring, anoying and also, possibly insulting. In later Books real, i.e hardware, systems will be discussed. THE "CODE" ANALOGIES 4 The first analogy offered was that of a point to point communications system. A typical system of this sort is the ordinary radio link. This was the first kind of radio system put to use. Broadcast systems followed not long afterwards. The second analogy is that of another type of code system - the multiplexer and switching computer. These are the "Mass-Access" Systems and are presently in common use as the "long distance" systems employed by the telephone ("Bell") systems, now AT&T. 5 While the analogy, that of a multiplicity of endless belts terminat ing on and originating from the main belt, is an analogy of a multi plexing and switching system, this analogy might only be clear to those who are intimately familiar with modern communications systems. Systems engineers will immediately understand that the analogy ap plies only to one of the two directions in which data must be trans mitted. It might not be equally obvious to non-specialist that data must be transmitted in both directions. This might not have been ob vious before but, it should be now. 6 The wafers which represented code had to have the character they were representing written on them by the operators, as was mentioned in the first two analogies in the previous chapter. The waferes repre sent, of course, code characters. Code characters are precisely what is transmitted overtly over the transmission path in code transmis sions. NOTHING ELSE IS USUALLY TRANSMITTED in point to point commun ications systems. In Mass-Access Code Systems, addresses might appear briefly in the Header Section of the frame, but, the bulk of the transmission is in code. 7 An exception is a code system that is relatively rarely used. In that system the subscriber's address is first transmitted; the address is then immediately followed by a code character. This "mini-trans mission" is then immediately followed by another such "transmission" - except that the address is that of another subscriber (i.e. address and code characters alternate) In this way many subscribers can be supplied with service. No analogy for this type of code system ap pears in the previous chapter. Such systems are considered herein as point to point systems. Their shortcoming is the fact that such code systems require about twice the bandwidth of other code systems...... and bandwidth costs money. 8 The foregoing establishes that there are really two fundamental types of code systems. In the first group data (code) is the explicit item. In these systems code appears explicitly on the transmission path and can, therefore, be directly observed (by an oscilloscope). In this group there are two types of systems:- [1] The point to point systems and [2] The Mass-Access systems. The Mass-Access transmissions are composed of two types of data:- [a] code data and [b] "header". The first is comprised of codes and the second is comprised (mainly) of addresses. In these Mass-Access sys tems information is transmitted intermittently, i.e. code is alter nated with "header". A synchronizing signal (the "sync" signal) is required and appears immediately ahead of the "header". 9 In point to point systems the ONLY thing that is transmitted is code. (In the special systems mentioned in paragraph 8 codes characters al ternate with addresses.) In both of these systems only explicit data appears on the transmission path. There is no implicit data to sent. In such systems data can be directly sent from one subscriber to an other. In the "broadcast" mode a large number of receptors can "listen-in". (When there is no specific receptor point to point sys tems are become "broadcast systems") The important thing to note about such code systems is that there is ONLY explicit data. That is, all the data can be observed with an oscilloscope. 10 In Mass-Access systems, the multiplexer, during the course of the in terval known as the Data Section (wherein code is transmitted) there are actually two forms of information being sent. (The same is not true of the interval in which the "Header Section" is present.) Dur ing the Data Section codes appear in explicit form upon the transmis sion path. The code appears in "slots" which might be of any length. (One bit slots are usual.) While each slot might carry one or more explicit bits of code, each slot is also conveys the address of a subscriber in explicit form. The address is implicit in the slot's location within the frame. (The specific address was given in the Header Section.) THEREFORE, the Data Section conveys two distinct forms of data: [1] the overt or explicit data represented by the code and [2] the implicit data represented by the slot's number. The im plicit address (which appears in explicit form in the Header Section) is due to the fact that the switching computer (associated with the multiplexer and de-multiplexer) assigns each slot to a specific sub scriber, for a period determined mainly by the duration of the call. Therefore, each and every slot is an implicit address that can never be observed (as such) by an oscilloscope. 11 The wafers (of the anaolgy) have to be written upon by the operator. That is because each wafer represents a character which varies from moment to moment. The characters transmitted must be ones chosen from the "character-sets" in use. Any character which is not part of such a character-set cannot be transmitted. Character-sets are chosen to contain 2n characters where "n" can be any number. "n" characters are employed because that is the most cost effective mode of using code. "n" commonly varies between 4 and 9 for communications systems and between 14 and 18 for "musical" systems. 12 Analogies for Positional Transduction Methodology systems also appear in the previous chapter. They appears in two parts, the first one using the endless belt analogy which was then changed to the large rotating wheel anaology. In the first instance the endless belt has characters written on it. This does not represent any real system. It is given to help "orient" the reader. And - the reader's first reaction PROBABLY might be:- "it is very wasteful". And so it is - as shown. Moreover, it is difficult to impossible to implement. (The aim is not to show an efficient method but to get the reader to comprehend the basic methodology employed - efficient or not. Later {mostly in Book 2} we will concern ourselves with "efficiency." 13 In the second PTM analogy, where the belt contains no (printed) char acters. The anaology approximats a more nearly real situation. There, the endless belt still contains "lines" to separate nest from nest. The reader must understand that these are merely "visual aids" for our imaginary operators. They (the lines) have no real counterpart in an actual system since there is no need for them. In this analogy the operator merely places a wafer in the nest which "represents" the character being transferred, writing thereon is unnecessary. 14 Note that what appears on the transmission path (the belt) is a wafer which represents an address, that of the belt's one and only recept or. Since the endless belt has only one receptor, the address is none specific since it is not addressed to anyone specifically. The belt represents a transmission path over which the "ones" and "zeros" compising the ADDRESSES flow. (The "ones" are the wafers). The "one" in this case is the Marker, i.e. the means of denoting that THAT NEST is the conveyer of message data. The nests containing zeros have no to convey, they are empty. 15 The drums which appear in the analogies are analogues of actual hard ware devices that appears in the hardware allocated to each subscrib er. This hardware device indicates to the subscriber's equipment ex actly what nest is present at each and every moment just as the drum indicates to the operator just what letter each nest represents. Both of the foregoing indicate in EXplicit form what each nest represents. This indication is occasionally referred to herein as the "nest's meaning". THE ITEM OF DATA EACH NEST REPRESENTS IS NEVER TRANSMITTED. 16 The analogy wherein the wheel is employed is a more "realistic" anal ogy. Here, each subscriber (operator) has a pile of different colored wafers to chose from. The color of the wafer determines who its receptor will be. In other words, the color of the chip is an address of a receptor. As before, each operator places a wafer in the nest which represents the character that that operator wants the receptor to receive. (The operators are all entering data into the nests si multaneously.) The rules prohibit an operator from entering a wafer into a nest which is already occupied or removing some else's wafer. (Erasures are illegal.) The rules also require that each operator must remove the wafers directed to him (or her), i.e. those of the operator's color must be removed. (This prevents the same wafer from going around on the wheel and thereby being repeatedly read.) These rules permit the wheel to SIMULTANEOUSLY convey data from many orig inating subscribers to many receptor subscribers. This analogy, is in effect, the "primitive" model of A Positional Transduction Method ology system. 17 If we examine the analogy of the wheel we discover the following. The only observable data are the addresses (which appear as different colored wafers.) Therefore, the only explicit data that appears on the transmission path are addresses. Since the address of a receptor only conveys the fact that the particular nest wherein it occurs con tains data for the addressed receptor , it is information. But it IS explicit data. The address does not transmit information (even if its location does). The information is implicit in the wafer's position. The data is a derived quality, i.e. an item of information extracted from the location of an address. TYPES OF SYSTEMS 18 The foregoing permits us to classify systems on the the basis of both the type of data they transmits and the data they imply. Therefore, classification is made in terms of [1] explicit and [2] implicit data. Classification has now been reduced to just two major paramet ers: [1] Explicit and [2] Implicit! 19 Now, two things can be taken itemized in precisely four mathematical ways. [1] The system employs only explicit data. This corresponds to point to point code systems; [2] The system employs explicit data (codes) and implicit ad dresses. This corresponds to multiplexed/switched systems (Mass-Access code systems); [3] The system employes explicit addresses, and implicit in formation. Such systems correspond to Positional Trans duction Methodology systems. [4] The system employs implicit addresses and implicit inform ation types of systems which are not discussed herein. (They might be described and discussed in my future books - if any.) 20 These four comprise all possible types of systems. (Not their modes of implementation.) 21 In items [1] & [2] of paragraph 19, we can observe that the form that the data takes in these classes of systems is always the explicit form. There might be an occasional address also, but it too is ex plicit. But, in Mass-Access code systems when explicit addresses oc cur they are instructions to the multiplexers or the switching com puters. The are not employed by the subscribers nor by the subscrib er's equipment. 22 An exception occurs in code systems which send an address followed by a code character. These systems do not convey any implicit data. The result is that they are even more inefficient than any other forms of code systems. They waste the space that might be usefully employed by implicit data while simultaneously using additional explicit space to convey the extra data. (The extra data might be regarded as either the address or the code or both.) 23 In the third system (item [3] of paragraph 19) the explicit data are "Tags" we have come to know as addresses. (Tag is the corrrect gener ic term.) And Tags, as we shall see, are instructions of many differ ent kinds. (Each type of Tag is assigned its own name.) These Tags are employed by the Positional Transduction Methodology systems in various different manners. A large number of very unusual and useful ly systems are permitted by these Tags. And what is a bit more, these systems are very efficient and flexible. 24 In Positional Transduction Methodology systems, implicit data is man ipulated in a great many very different fashions. The Tags employed by Positional Transduction Methodology can be treated as software elements and manipulated by a special form of programming. This lends a software quality to these systems. This treatment permits a very large number of different systems and technologies to exist which share the same common basis. We will learn about a few of these sys tems. (We cannot study them all since about 30! modes are known - now.) As many different types of data can be simultaneously transferred as could possibly be desired. There results a degree of flexibility which undreamed of in code systems. AND, it is accomplished with very little hardware. And, as a bonus, with this comes the fact that many fewer bits are required to achieve the same amount to data transfer /transmission expected of codes. 25 In course of studying Positional Transduction Methodology systems the reader may find that s/he is also learning new things about code sys tems. One system throws light on the other. Normally, it is very dif ficult to distinguish a system from the code with which it is imple mented. The two are all too frequently confused one with the other. After studying the material presented in these books, the reader will find it much easier to separate the two. HISTORY 26 Whey back when the telegraph system was first invented and built (by Gauss) it was a big flop commercially. That makes sense (but not cents) when we reflect that Gauss was more interested in the science which consisted of discovering the fundamental nature of something than in the "science" of making money. The money making business was left to Mr. S. Morse. Mr. Morse might have known of the work of Fred rick Gauss, they lived about the same time. 27 As inventions go, the telegraph was not much. The hardware was known and available. But, Morse knew how to get money. He did make one very real contribution - the invention of "morse code". That invention was most probably considered trivial because the trivializers said it was obvious. (Its always obvious AFTERWARDS.) THAT invention has been with us ever since, and in many forms. It is so obvious that many (i.e. most) Engineers (engin Ears?) and pro-fessors believe it is the ONLY POSSIBLE WAY IN WHICH DATA CAN BE TRANSMITTED DIGITALLY. They will still believe IT after reading this text. Things will remain that way until the generation now in charge dies off. Therefore:- this text is directed to the open minded, those who are willing to investigate and explore new ideas and concepts. And that means mostly the young in body, mind and/or spirit. 28 Morse code has undergone several changes since it was first invented. Most of these were made in order to "adjust" the code to accommodate machines. There can be no doubt of their success in this regards. In the process the fundamental nature of the code concept was lost. It was changed from an invented concept to a firm and almost religious belief which demeans it. Challenge it and watch "peep holes" turn red and white with rage while they show their "impartial", thoughtful and logical attitudes! 29 Our impartial "science" is run by those who have a vested interest in "things as they are", i.e. in having their bread buttered on both sides. (See James Branch Cabell) These big anti-science "scientists" steal from their "subordinates" (?!) who are in no position to defend themselves; they need their jobs, promotions, and advancement to MR. Big (pig). Also, the Corporations ARE interests in "things as they now are". Progress is nice a word. It is worshiped on Sundays or on Sundaes when nobody (who is anybody) works. It is wholly unholy and holely. 30 This BOOK describes and discusses FUTURE SYSTEMS. These are the sys tems, and concepts which are the stuff of progress is made of. [Par don my ego.] Those who "have it made" will (and possibly should) hate it, passionately. Those of you who are young in mind, those of you who want and who will make progress will have to be the new van guard. Ilook to you. BOASTS 31 Under this heading things are said which cannot be proven - now. They require the knowledge which is presented later in these BOOKS. And are, therefore, unprovable - now. ALL such statements are boasts. 32 There are some things that you should be told now which cannot be now proven until later. Without this information you might just put this book aside and forget it because you need some reason to go on. There must be some justification for spending considerable of your valuable time reading (really studying) a difficult text. (New concepts are always difficult.) 33 A reason why these systems must be implemented is because we are run ning out of resources: including the financial resourses wherewith to pay the bills.. (But, no one cares about THAT.) There are other such as the fact that there is a great deal of money to be made, by you. These systems:- [1] Use very much less materials (scarce and otherwise) than the conventional systems they aim to displace; [2] For example, they use 0.3 to 2 percent of the materials required by conventional telephone systems; [3] And consequently they cost much less to build. operate and maintain; [4] They can out-perform code systems in every major regard. For example, in communications systems:- {a} More data can be conveyed over a given bandwidth by Positional Transduction Methodology systems than can any code system; {b} More services can be provided than is possible with code systems (economically); {c} The "complexity" of Positional Transduction Methodology systems is very low; {d} Dedicated lines are unnecessary which makes remote control practical, i.e. inexpensive; {e} etc. 34 Some examples of possible usage are:- [1] Communications systems. (see above) {a} Mass-Access (telephone) systems; {b} Point to Point (radio, satellite, microwave, interplanetary, broadcast, etc) [2] Digital recording systems for data and music. (Much more data on a given length of tape, higher sampling rates, etc.) Simultaneously recording of thousands of channels are easy to make. (No theoretic upper limit! with only relatively minor increase in hardware) [3] Traffic Flow Control Systems. (Far more capability with far less hardware.) [4] Control Systems. (Control over a vast number of items or parts, production lines, etc.) [5} Computational Systems. (Entirely new types of computational machines. All are capable of parallel processing. Throughputs in excess of 1020 operations (not bytes) per second are easily possible. And very much more. [6] Hybrid of the above are easily built. 35 Now that you have been introduced (take a bow) to Positional Trans duction Methodology, we can take the time (and space) to delve into some other matters which must be brought to your attention before the DEEP (?!) technical discussions begin. The next three chapter might seem to you to be a waste of time. But, there is material in them which you must know if all that follows is be readily understood. Chapter 1 and 2 should have given you a very slight idea of the material which will follow.